Effects of ethnicity and geography on the fecal microbiota and dietary habits of Tibeto-Burman hill tribes in Northern Thailand

Study information

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incomplete

study design

cross-sectional observational, not case-control

Citation

PMID PubMed identifier for scientific articles.

41052039

DOI Digital object identifier for electronic documents.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332108

URI Uniform resource identifier for web resources.

Authors

Seetaraso T., Gruneck L., Jinatham V., Kantakat S., Albert M.L., Therdtatha P., Inta A., Srikummool M., Kampuansai J., Popluechai S.

Journal

PloS one

Year

2025

Numerous studies have shown that both ethnicity and geography influence gut microbiota composition; however, the effects of these parameters remain understudied in Thailand. We explored the fecal microbiota of 102 individuals, from the Tibeto-Burman-speaking hill-tribe populations (Akha, Lahu, and Lisu) residing in two provinces of Northern Thailand, Chiang Mai, and Chiang Rai, using quantitative PCR polymerase chain reaction. Multivariate statistical analyses, including multiple factor analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis, were conducted to explore associations between microbiota composition, ethnicity, geographic location, and other host variables (dietary behaviors and participant characteristics). Both ethnicity and geography were linked to gut microbiota composition and dietary patterns, with geography exhibiting a stronger association with variations in microbiota. Ethnicity, however, was primarily related to differences in dietary habits. Notably, gut microbiota profiles were more closely aligned among ethnic groups within the same location than among individuals of the same ethnicity from different regions. The relationship between diet and gut microbiota varied across ethnic and geographic groups, while host factors had a relatively minor impact on microbiota variation. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of variations in gut microbiota among ethnic groups in Northern Thailand and highlight a notable association between geographic location and gut microbiota composition.

Experiment 1

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Subjects

Location of subjects

Thailand

Host species Species from which microbiome was sampled. Contact us to have more species added.

Homo sapiens

Body site Anatomical site where microbial samples were extracted from according to the Uber Anatomy Ontology

Feces Cow dung,Cow pat,Droppings,Dung,Excrement,Excreta,Faeces,Fecal material,Fecal matter,Fewmet,Frass,Guano,Matières fécales@fr,Merde@fr,Ordure,Partie de la merde@fr,Piece of shit,Porción de mierda@es,Portion of dung,Portion of excrement,Portion of faeces,Portion of fecal material,Portion of fecal matter,Portion of feces,Portion of guano,Portion of scat,Portionem cacas,Scat,Spoor,Spraint,Stool,Teil der fäkalien@de,Feces,feces

Condition The experimental condition / phenotype studied according to the Experimental Factor Ontology

Ethnic group , Population Ethnicity,race,Ethnic group,ethnic group,Population,population

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

19

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

22

Antibiotics exclusion Number of days without antibiotics usage (if applicable) and other antibiotics-related criteria used to exclude participants (if any)

3 months

Lab analysis

Sequencing type

16S

16S variable region One or more hypervariable region(s) of the bacterial 16S gene

Not specified

Sequencing platform Manufacturer and experimental platform used for quantifying microbial abundance

RT-qPCR

Statistical Analysis

Data transformation Data transformation applied to microbial abundance measurements prior to differential abundance testing (if any).

relative abundances

Statistical test

T-Test

Significance threshold p-value or FDR threshold used for differential abundance testing (if any)

0.05

MHT correction Have statistical tests be corrected for multiple hypothesis testing (MHT)?

Yes

Confounders controlled for Confounding factors that have been accounted for by stratification or model adjustment

age, body mass index, Confounders controlled for: "gender" is not in the list (abnormal glucose tolerance, acetaldehyde, acute graft vs. host disease, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, adenoma, age, AIDS, alcohol consumption measurement, alcohol drinking, ...) of allowed values.gender, Confounders controlled for: "diastolic blood pressure" is not in the list (abnormal glucose tolerance, acetaldehyde, acute graft vs. host disease, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, adenoma, age, AIDS, alcohol consumption measurement, alcohol drinking, ...) of allowed values.diastolic blood pressure, Confounders controlled for: "systolic blood pressure" is not in the list (abnormal glucose tolerance, acetaldehyde, acute graft vs. host disease, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, adenoma, age, AIDS, alcohol consumption measurement, alcohol drinking, ...) of allowed values.systolic blood pressure

Signature 1

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Source: S2 Table and Figure 1

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

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Actinomycetota

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 2

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

22

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

23

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

Mann-Whitney (Wilcoxon)

T-Test

Welch's T-Test

Signature 1

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Source: S8 Table and Figure 1

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Actinomyces
Bacillota
Bacteroides
Bacteroidota
Christensenella minuta
Coprococcus
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Methanobacteria
Prevotella
Roseburia
Ruminococcus
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium
Blautia producta

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 3

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

19

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

16

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

Mann-Whitney (Wilcoxon)

T-Test

Signature 1

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Curated date: 2025/10/20

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Source: S9 Table and Figure 1

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

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Bacillota
Bacteroidota
Actinomycetota
Bacteroides
Prevotella
Roseburia
Ruminococcus
Coprococcus
Actinomyces
Bifidobacterium
Lactobacillus
Bacteroides fragilis
Blautia producta
Christensenella minuta
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Akkermansia muciniphila
Methanobacteria

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 4

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

22

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

PLS-DA (Partial least square discriminant analysis)

Significance threshold p-value or FDR threshold used for differential abundance testing (if any)

0.001

MHT correction Have statistical tests be corrected for multiple hypothesis testing (MHT)?

No

Signature 1

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Source: S1 Figure A

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Actinomycetota
Bacteroides fragilis
Bifidobacterium
Staphylococcus
Methanobacteria
Bacillota
Akkermansia muciniphila
Actinomyces
Gammaproteobacteria
Christensenella minuta
Lactobacillus
Bacteroides
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Signature 2

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Source: S1 Figure A

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: decreased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

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Fusobacterium
Roseburia

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 5

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) 

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lahua ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

22

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

19

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

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Curated date: 2025/10/20

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Source: S1 Figure A

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

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Coprococcus
Prevotella
Streptococcus
Enterococcus
Bacteroidota

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Signature 2

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Source: S1 Figure A

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Abundance in Group 1: decreased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

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Methanobrevibacter smithii
Ruminococcus
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium
Blautia producta

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 6

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

19

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

22

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

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Source: S1 Figure B

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

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Bacteroides fragilis
Staphylococcus
Actinomycetota

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Signature 2

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Source: S1 Figure B

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: decreased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Akkermansia muciniphila
Fusobacterium
Bacillota
Bifidobacterium
Lactobacillus
Methanobacteria
Gammaproteobacteria
Actinomyces
Christensenella minuta
Bacteroides
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Roseburia

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 7

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM) 

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lahua ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

22

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

19

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

EditHistoryDelete

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Curated date: 2025/10/20

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Source: S1 Figure B

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai province (LahuCM)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Bacteroidota
Blautia producta
Coprococcus
Enterococcus
Methanobrevibacter smithii
Prevotella
Ruminococcus
Streptococcus
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 8

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) 

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

23

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

ANOVA

Kruskall-Wallis

Significance threshold p-value or FDR threshold used for differential abundance testing (if any)

0.05

MHT correction Have statistical tests be corrected for multiple hypothesis testing (MHT)?

Yes

Signature 1

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Source: S3 Table

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) and Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) 

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Bacillota
Gammaproteobacteria
Ruminococcus
Actinomyces
Christensenella minuta

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 9

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) 

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

16

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

ANOVA

Signature 1

EditHistoryDelete

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Curated date: 2025/10/20

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Source: S3 Table

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) and Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) 

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Actinomyces
Lactobacillus

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 10

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

23

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Statistical test

PLS-DA (Partial least square discriminant analysis)

Significance threshold p-value or FDR threshold used for differential abundance testing (if any)

0.001

MHT correction Have statistical tests be corrected for multiple hypothesis testing (MHT)?

No

Signature 1

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Source: Figure 3A

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (AkhaCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Actinomyces
Akkermansia muciniphila
Bacillota
Bacteroides
Bacteroidota
Bifidobacterium
Blautia producta
Christensenella minuta
Coprococcus
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Fusobacterium
Gammaproteobacteria
Lactobacillus
Methanobacteria
Methanobrevibacter smithii
Prevotella
Roseburia
Ruminococcus
Streptococcus
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 11

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

19

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

16

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

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Source: Figure 3B

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Mai Province (LahuCM)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Bacillota
Bacteroidota
Bacteroides
Lactobacillus
Bacteroides fragilis
Actinomycetota
Prevotella
Actinomyces
Bifidobacterium
Methanobacteria
Blautia producta
Roseburia
Christensenella minuta
Akkermansia muciniphila
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Ruminococcus
Coprococcus
Methanobrevibacter smithii
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium
Gammaproteobacteria

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 12

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

 Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

23

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

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Curated date: 2025/10/21

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Source: S1 Figure C

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR) and Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Actinomyces
Lactobacillus
Streptococcus
Coprococcus
Enterococcus
Prevotella
Actinomycetota
Bacteroides fragilis
Akkermansia muciniphila

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 13

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Curated date: 2025/10/21

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

22

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

23

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

EditHistoryDelete

Mark reviewed

Your review change was submitted

Needs review

Curated date: 2025/10/21

Curator: Firdaws

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Source: S1 Figure C

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR) and Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Akha ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (AkhaCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Ruminococcus
Christensenella minuta
Bacteroidota
Bacillota
Gammaproteobacteria
Blautia producta
Methanobacteria
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
Bacteroides
OsilobacteriumOsilobacterium
Roseburia
Fusobacterium

Revision editor(s): Firdaws

Experiment 14

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Curated date: 2025/10/21

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Differences from previous experiment shown

Subjects

Group 0 name Corresponds to the control (unexposed) group for case-control studies

Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Group 1 name Corresponds to the case (exposed) group for case-control studies

Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Group 1 definition Diagnostic criteria applied to define the specific condition / phenotype represented in the case (exposed) group

Participants from Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

Group 0 sample size Number of subjects in the control (unexposed) group

16

Group 1 sample size Number of subjects in the case (exposed) group

22

Lab analysis

Statistical Analysis

Signature 1

EditHistoryDelete

Mark reviewed

Your review change was submitted

Needs review

Curated date: 2025/10/21

Curator: Firdaws

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Source: S1 Figure C

Description: The relative abundance of gut microbiota between Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR) and Lahu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LahuCR)

Abundance in Group 1: increased abundance in Lisu ethnic group residing in Chiang Rai Province (LisuCR)

NCBI	Quality Control	Links
Staphylococcus
Methanobrevibacter smithii

Revision editor(s): Firdaws